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Cumbria was created as a county in 1974 from territory of the of , , North of the Sands and a small part of , but the human history of the area is ancient. It is a county of contrasts, with its mountainous central region and lakes, fertile coastal plains in the north and gently undulating hills in the south. Cumbria now relies on farming as well as tourism as economic bases, but industry has historically also played a vital role in the area's fortunes. For much of its history Cumbria was disputed between England and nearby Scotland. Cumbria has historically been fairly isolated. Until the coming of the railway, much of the region was hard to reach, and even today there are roads which make many motorists a little nervous. In bad winters, some of the central valleys are occasionally cut off from the outside world. Enclaves of Celts remained until around the 10th century, long after much of England was essentially 'English'; and the Norse retained a distinct identity well into the. This article is about the area that became the county of Cumbria in 1974, and its inhabitants. Although the term Cumbria was in use in the 10th century AD, this was a description of an entity belonging to the small kingdom of Strathclyde. In the 12th century, Cumberland and Westmorland came into existence as administrative counties. Main article: 'Prehistoric Cumbria' describes that part of north-west England, subsequently the county of , prior to the coming of the Romans. Barrowclough puts the archaeological record of the county as of 2010 at '443 stone tools, 187 metal objects and 134 pots', plus the various monuments such as henges, stone circles, and the like. The survival of these objects has been influenced by processes such as the rise in sea levels on the west coast, erosion, deposition practices, industrial and agricultural development, and the changing interests and capabilities of antiquarians and archaeologists. The first permanent inhabitants of the Cumbria region were based in caves during the era. The saw the construction of monuments and the running of the axe 'factory' from which stone axes were carried around the country. The saw continuity with the Neolithic way of living and Cumbria saw the establishment of the Celtic tribes - possibly those called the and by the Romans. Earliest human inhabitants: the Late Upper Palaeolithic, c. Other lithic blades were found at Lindale Low Cave at the mouth of the , in caves at Blenkett Wood, , and at Bart's Shelter, including reindeer and elk bones. During the following stadial colder period , c. It is thought that settlers made their way across and along the fertile coast. Evidence for the Early Mesolithic period in Cumbria is largely confined to finds in caves. Horse and elk remains, from an earlier date, were also found. For the Late Mesolithic, evidence comes from pits at Monk Moors and burning of heathland in the Eden Valley floodplain. Kents Bank, Cumbria In the north Cumbrian plain, around the Carlisle area and into southern Scotland, evidence has been found for woodland clearance and deliberate fire-setting as a method of managing the landscape during the Mesolithic period. Large Mesolithic flint-chipping sites, where flints washed up from the were worked into tools, have been found at Eskmeals, near on the west coast, and at in the south. At Williamson's Moss in the Eskmeals area, Bonsall discovered 34,000 pieces of worked pebble flint , and , plus wooden raft-like structures that suggest permanent or semi-permanent settlement by the wandering hunter-gatherer population. Over 30,000 artefacts were discovered at Monk Moors, also part of the Eskmeals raised shoreline area. These sites were probably used across several thousands of years, not just during the Mesolithic. This consists mostly of finds of axes and the presence of monuments stone circles, cairns. This was a time of technological advances and population expansion. The change from Mesolithic to Neolithic in Cumbria was gradual and continual. Great Langdale, site of the At some time, the Mesolithic coastal communities must have moved further inland, probably following rivers along valley corridors into the heart of. But we do not know how many moved. The evidence of deer bones here and at in South Cumbria suggests a continuation of hunter-gathering alongside more settled, agricultural, means of living. Ehenside points up the use of wetland areas by Neolithic Cumbrians: the finds there were discovered when the Tarn was drained. South Cumbria, and especially Furness and Walney, is the area where most of the axe finds have been made 67 examples - accounting for half of the total of axe finds in Cumbria. This is probably due to the area's proximity to the so-called. Many of the axes seem to have been intentionally deposited in moss areas and in fissures in rocks. Indeed, that axe factory is perhaps the most famous and important find of Neolithic activity in Cumbria: many thousands of axe heads were made there from the green volcanic found on the from around 6000 BC. The axe heads were not only for local use in weapons: they have been found widely over the from to , and seem to have often been used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. Also at this time, possibly reflecting economic power created by the Axe Factory, and began to be built across the county. The Neolithic examples include the impressive henge at , near , and a partly destroyed one at nearby KART ; as well as the above. The megalith , along with and a circle at may also have been erected at this time, although they are also possibly early Bronze Age in date. As well as providing focal points for the gathering of people for the purposes of trade, of ritual, and, in the Late Neolithic, for more 'tenurial' settlement and ownership of land, the stone circles probably had cosmological uses as well. For example, the stone itself, which stands outside its accompanying circle, is aligned with the circle's centre on the point of the midwinter sunset. The use of different coloured stones here is possibly linked to observations made at the times of equinoxes and solstices. Like the transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic, the transition from Neolithic to Early Bronze Age was gradual and continuity of sites is likely. Unlike in southern England, where the transition is marked by the , in Cumbria and the north-west burials with beaker pottery are rare, with only a handful of such burials recorded. Instead, circular wooden and then stone structures subsequently sealed by cairns and used over centuries was the preferred method. In the Early Bronze Age, evidence of greatly increased woodland clearing combined with cereal growing has been found in the pollen record for the North Cumbrian Plain, Solway Firth and the coastal areas. Very little evidence of occupation exists, although a number of potential sites have been identified by aerial photographic work. Collared urns have been found at sites such as the former Garlands Hospital now the Carleton Clinic near Carlisle , Aughertree Fell, , and at Eskmeals with a cist burial, cremation pits, and a flint-knapping site. Activity round the Morecambe Bay region seems to have been less than in the West Cumbrian Coastal Plain, although there is evidence for significant settlement on Walney Island, and at Sizergh, Levens Park and where Beaker burials took place. This southern area of the county also has approximately 85 examples of perforated axe-hammers, rarely found in the rest of the county. These, like the Neolithic stone axes, seem to have been deposited deliberately with axe finds being more coastal in distribution. The increase in the use of these perforated axes probably accounted for the decline in the Langdale axe factory which occurred c. Copper and bronze tools only seem to have arrived in Cumbria very gradually through the 2nd millennium. This was not compensated for by home-grown metallurgical working. Cairn circle, Oddendale In terms of burial practices, both inhumations burials of non-cremated bodies and cremations took place in Cumbria, with cremations 268 being more favoured than inhumations 51. Most burials were associated with cairns 26 but other monuments were also used: round barrows 14 ; 'flat' cemeteries 12 ; stone circles 9 ; plus use of ring cairns, standing stones and other monuments. Burials for inhumations in barrows and cairns are found on the surface, as at , or in pits, usually with a cist formed in it, as at Moor Divock,. Often, there are multiple burials not associated with any monument - another indication of continuity with Neolithic practice. Cremated bones placed in food vessels was followed by a later practice of placement in collared or uncollared urns, although many burials had no urns involved at all. A capping stone was often placed on the urn, which could be either upright or inverted. Ritualistic deposition into Cumbrian grave-sites include: broken artefacts, such as single beads from a necklace as at ; sherds of Beaker or Collared Urn pottery; bone pins, buttons, jet, slate, clay ornaments; ochre, or red porphyry and quartz crystals as at Birkrigg, ; knives, daggers and hunting equipment. A timber palisade has also been discovered at near Carlisle. Again, there is continuity between Bronze-age and Neolithic practice of deposition. There seems to be an association between the distribution of stone perforated axe-hammers and bronze metalwork deposition in the area of Furness. Of the approximately 200 bronze implements found in Cumbria, about half have been found in the Furness and Cartmel region. Most are flanged axes 21 , and flanged spearheads 21 , 20 , and flat and socketed axes 16 each. Early Bronze Age metalwork distribution is largely along communication valleys such as the Eden valley , and on the Furness and West Cumbrian plains, with evidence on the west coast for example, a find at of connections with Ireland. In the Middle Bronze Age, deposition seems to have switched from burials to wet places, presumably for ritualistic reasons. In the Late Bronze Age, socketed axe finds are the most common 62 , but are rare in West Cumbria, which also lacks finds of the angle-flanged type. Hoards two or more items of deposited Bronze Age metalwork are rare in Cumbria, notably at , , Fell Lane, Kirkhead Cave, Skelmore Heads , for reasons that are still being discussed. Most are from the Middle Bronze Age period. As mentioned above, evidence of actual metalworking in Cumbria during this period is scarce. There is some sign of copper ore extraction around the Coniston area, but the most notable find is of a , a clay pipe connecting the bellows to a furnace , found at and which is a rare example from the Early Bronze Age. Two-part stone moulds have also been found at. Swinside stone circle Ritual or 'religious' sites can be seen across the county and are often clearly visible. Cairns and round barrows can be found throughout the area and a cemetery has been discovered near. More impressive remains include stone circles, such as , , , and. In the Late Bronze Age, defended hilltop settlements along the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, with metalworking, special functions and long-term deposition of artefacts associated with them, were probably precursors to later Iron Age hill-forts. However, many of these defended settlements appear to have been abandoned, probably due to a deterioration in the climate from c. The people of and were divided into various tribes: in Cumbria the may have dominated most of the county for a time, perhaps being based in the Solway Plain and centred on Carlisle, although an alternative view has their pre-Roman centre at. The were possibly situated in the south of the county, until both were perhaps incorporated into the who occupied much of northern England. The status - especially that of the relationship with the Brigantes - and location of the Carvetii and Setantii is disputed by historians. They probably spoke , a variety of the ancient British language of , or , the predecessor of modern , and probably named some of the county's topographical features such as its rivers e. Kent, Eden, Cocker, Levens and mountains e. There appear to be many remains of Iron Age settlement in Cumbria, including hill forts such as those at Maiden Castle and Dunmallard Hill and many hundreds of smaller settlements and field systems. However, securely dateable evidence of Iron Age activity in Cumbria is thin. In North Cumbria, hillforts have been dated to c. Swarthy Hill, near Crosscanonby on the Solway coast - possible site of Iron Age hillfort, later the site of milefortlet 21 in Roman times A large number of enclosure sites have been identified from aerial photographs in the Solway Plain. There are also possible sites re-used by the Romans at Bousted Hill and Fingland, as well as at Ewanrigg and Edderside. Early Iron Age finds in West Cumbria are limited to sites at Eskmeals and Seascale Moss with another bog body. In the south, 'hillforts' have been identified at Skelmore Heads, Castle Head, Warton Crag and an enclosure at Urswick. However, Cumbria appears not to have any of the so-called 'developed hillforts' enlarged from earlier versions, around 3-7ha in area, with multiple ditches and complex entrances , suggesting that few, if any, were still being used in the pre-Roman Iron Age, apparently having been abandoned. The abandonment of land and settlements noted above is probably explained by climate change. However, an improvement in climatic conditions from c. A major de-forestation period, linked to increased cereal production, seems to have taken place according to pollen records towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. This is also associated with a slight rise in sea level that may explain the lack of evidence for low-lying settlements. There is sparse evidence for the Late Iron Age and early Romano-British periods. Nevertheless, enclosures seen from aerial photography in upland areas such as and , together with similar evidence from the Solway Plain and Eden Valley, see the section below on for a listing of the main sites , point to the populous nature of the territory held by the Brigantes as noted by Tacitus in the ''. The view of historians now seems to be that the hillforts were becoming centres of economic activity and were less in the nature of dominating power-centres. The traditional Iron Age roundhouse, enclosed by a ditch and revetted bank, was used by the Carvetii. Sometimes, dry-stone walls were used instead of the bank. However, a roundhouse at Wolsty Hall has two opposed entrances and a ring-grooved external wall, which may indicate a northern, regional variety of roundhouse building. Later, in the mid-Roman period, probably in the 3rd century, a change took place in that the round structures were replaced by rectilinear buildings on some sites. Iron Age roundhouse reconstruction Most of the population, the total size of which at its peak has been estimated at between 20,000-30,000 people, lived in scattered communities, usually consisting of just a single family group. They practised mixed agriculture, with enclosures for arable use, but also with enclosed and unenclosed pasture fields. Evidence of burial practices is extremely rare. Inhumations have been found at Risehow, and possibly at Butts Beck crouched individuals in pits and ditches as well as two very rare cemeteries with multiple individuals only approximately 30 Iron Age cemeteries exist in Britain in total at Nelson Square, Levens and at Crosby Garrett. The Butts Beck burial included the body of a 'warrior' along with his weapons and a horse although this might have been a horse and cart burial, rather than a warrior one, with the wooden cart having rotted away. The bog body at and the one at are difficult to date, and, since the excavations were done in the 19th century and lacked today's archaeological techniques, the evidence for Druidical ritual sacrifice, as appears with some other bog bodies in Britain and Europe, is not present in the Cumbrian examples. However, both bodies were buried with a wooden stick or wand, which conforms to other bog-burial practice elsewhere. The finding of stone heads at and at Rickerby Park, Carlisle, also conforms to the and ritualistic sacrifice. This may be true also of the bronze buckets or cauldrons deposited at and at which indicate connections with Ireland. The early name of Carlisle, '', meaning 'belonging to Luguvalos', suggests a tribal chief in charge who had a personal name that meant 'strong as Lugus'. This indicates a possible affinity of the tribe there perhaps the Carvetii to the Celtic god , whose festival, Lugnasad, occurred on 1 August, accompanied by various sacrifices. Hoards of deposited Cumbrian Iron Age metalwork show evidence of a regional variation, with Cumbrian hoards being mostly of weapons buried off-site and consisting of small numbers of items. This fits the picture of Iron Age Cumbria, as with the rest of the north-west, consisting mostly of small, scattered, farmsteads. In the 18th century a beautiful iron sword with a bronze scabbard, dating from around 50 BC, was found at Embleton near ; it is now in the. Main article: Roman Cumbria was an area that lay on the north-west frontier of , and, indeed, of the itself. The term 'Cumbria' is a much later designation - the Romans would not have used it. Interest in the Roman occupation of the region lies in this frontier aspect - why did the Romans choose to occupy the north-west of England; why build a solid barrier in the north of the region ; why was the region so heavily militarised; to what extent were the native inhabitants 'Romanised' compared to their compatriots in southern England? The decision to conquer the area was taken by the Romans after the revolt of threatened to make the and their allies, such as the , into anti-Roman tribes, rather than pro-Roman ones which had previously been the case. After a period of conquest and consolidation, based on the line, with some coastal defences added, Hadrian decided to make the previous turf wall into a solid one. Although abandoned briefly in favour of the more northerly , the Hadrianic line was fallen back upon and remained for the rest of the Roman period. Such unrest as occurred during the Roman occupation seems to have been the result of either incursions by tribes to the north of the Wall, or as the result of factional disputes in Rome in which the Cumbrian military was caught up. There is no evidence of the Brigantian federation stirring up trouble. Romanisation of the population may therefore have occurred to varying degrees, especially near the forts. Conquest and consolidation, 71—117 AD After the in 43 AD, the territory of the remained independent of Roman rule for some time. At that time the leader of the Brigantes was the queen , whose husband might have been a and may therefore be responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into the Brigantian federation. It may be that Cartimandua ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines possibly with a centre at , while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes or Carvetii west of the Pennines in Cumbria with a possible centre based at. Despite retaining nominal independence, Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to the Romans and in return were offered protection by their Imperial neighbours. But the royal couple divorced, and Venutius led two rebellions against his ex-wife. The first, in the 50s AD, was quashed by the Romans, but the second, in AD 69, came at a time of political instability in the Empire and resulted in the Romans evacuating Cartimandua and leaving Venutius to reign over the Brigantes. Hardknott Roman Fort The Romans could not accept a formerly pro-Roman tribe the size of the Brigantes now being ant-Roman, so the Roman conquest of the Brigantes began two years later. However, it is thought that much had been achieved under the previous governorships of governor 69-71 AD , and of governor 71-74 AD. From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle suggest that they were felled in 72 AD, during the governorship of Cerialis. Nevertheless, Agricola played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX , while Cerialis led the in the east. In addition, the sailed from Chester up river estuaries to cause surprise to the enemy. At some point, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola. Eventually, a consolidation based on the line of the road between Carlisle and Corbridge was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a 'centurio regionarius' or 'district commissioner' , indicating its important status. The Stanegate line is marked in red, to the south of the later Hadrian's Wall. Brocavum is Brougham, not Kirkby Thore as given in the map The years 87 AD - 117 AD were ones of consolidation of the northern frontier area. Only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, and the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as a result of battles with various tribes. Roman milestone still in situ by the A66 near Kirkby Thore Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, , Burrow Walls near to the present town of Workington and near to Whitehaven. These forts have Hadrianic inscriptions, but some Beckfoot, for example , may have dated From the late 1st century. The road running from Carlisle to Maryport had turf-and-timber forts along it at Red Dial , , and which may have had special responsibility for looking after the largely untouched Lake District region. The forts in the east along the Eden and Lune valley road at Old Penrith, Brougham and Low Borrow Bridge may have been enlarged, but the evidence is scanty. Other forts that may have been established during this period include one at Ambleside , positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the Lake District. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to where a fort was built the fort at , where the road eventually finished, was built in the following reign of Hadrian 117 AD - 138 AD. From the fort at Kirkby Thore Bravoniacum , which stood on the road from York to Brougham following the present A66 , there was also a road, the Maiden Way, that ran north across Alston Edge to the fort at Epiacum and on to the one at Carvoran on the Wall. In the south of the county, forts may have existed from this period south of Ravenglass and in the Barrow and Cartmel region. The only one that survives is at Watercrook. Hadrian, Antoninus and Severus, 117—211 AD Between 117 and 119, there may have been a war with the Britons, perhaps in the western part of the northern region, involving the tribes in the Dumfries and Galloway area. For whatever reason, this was not enough for the emperor emperor 117 AD - 138 AD. Perhaps the decision to build the Wall was taken because of the seriousness of the military situation, or because it fitted in with the new emperor's wish to consolidate the gains of the empire and to delimit its expansion, as happened on the German frontier, or possibly both. Hadrian, who was something of an amateur architect, came to Britain in 122 AD to oversee the building of a more solid frontier along with other measures elsewhere in England. It is possible that Hadrian stayed at in present-day Northumberland while planning the wall. Building of along the line of Agricola's earlier began in 122 AD and was mostly completed in less than ten years, such was the efficiency of the Roman military. It ran from on the Solway Firth across the north of the county and through to on the Tyne estuary, with additional military installations running down the Cumbrian coast from Bowness to Risehow, south of Maryport, in an integrated fashion and with forts at Burrow Walls and Moresby that were perhaps not part of the system. Milefortlet 21 at Crosscanonby on the Cumbrian coast, with later, 18th-century, saltpans across the road to the left There were several forts and milecastles along the Cumbrian half of the wall, the largest of which was Stanwix , housing a cavalry regiment and which was probably the Wall's headquarters perhaps indicating that the serious unrest was taking place in this western sector of the frontier, or perhaps it was halfway along the distance of the Wall plus the Solway coast installations. Nothing of Petriana has survived, the largest visible remains in Cumbria now belong to the fort at - very little of the Wall itself can be seen in Cumbria. Running to the north of the Wall was a ditch, and to the south an earthwork the. Initially, forts were maintained on the Stanegate line, but in around 124 AD - 125 AD the decision was taken to build forts on the Wall itself, and the Stanegate ones were closed down. So-called 'outpost-forts', with road links to the Wall, were built north of the Wall, probably at about the time the Wall itself was built in its turf and timber form. They include and in Cumbria, and in Dumfriesshire. Hadrian's Wall Only twenty years after Hadrian's Wall was started, emperor 138 AD - 161 AD almost completely abandoned it in 138 AD, a few months after his accession, turning his attentions to his own frontier fortification, the across central Scotland. Perhaps he wanted to include possible enemies and friends within a frontier zone, rather than beyond it, as with Hadrian's scheme. The two walls were not held in conjunction and the coastal fortifications were de-militarised as well. But Antoninus failed to secure control of southern Scotland and the Romans returned to Hadrian's Wall, which was re-furbished, in 164 AD, after which garrisons were retained there until the early 5th century. The Wall had cut the Carvetti's territory in half and it is possible that there was a certain amount of local raiding and uncertainty derived from them and possibly other local tribes to the north of the Wall. The early 160s saw troubles of some kind on the northern frontier. Continual building of the northern frontier region took place during the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, indicating further troubles. In around 180, the Wall was crossed by hostile forces who defeated one of the Roman armies. However, in the 170s and 180s the real pressure, in terms of disturbances, seems to have come from tribes much further north - the in particular. Events came to a head when the emperor , intending to attack the Caledones, established himself at York in 209 AD, designating it the capital of the northern region although this region, , may not have been formally established until after his death in 211. Prosperity, troubles, and the 'return to tribalism', 211—410 AD The settlement of Severus, carried forward diplomatically by his son , led to a period of relative peace in the north, which may have lasted for most of the 3rd-century we are severely hampered by the lack of sources concerning the northern frontier for most of the 3rd century, so this may be a false picture. For the first half of the century, it appears that the forts were kept in good repair and the coastal defences were probably not being used regularly. Power may have been shared between the Civitas and the Roman military. Some forts, such as Hardknott and Watercrook, may have been de-militarised, and parts of the Wall seem to have fallen into disrepair. Evidence of smaller barrack-blocks being built, as at Birdoswald, suggest reduced manning by the army and a sharing between the military and civilian population. Changes in the military across the empire, such as advancement of soldiers not from the senatorial classes plus greater use of 'barbarian' skilled workers , led to a more lax discipline. Galava Roman fort, Ambleside Despite a more settled existence in places like Cumbria, internal strains began to affect the empire as a whole. The internal promotion reform in the army led to various people expecting promotions, which they may not have been given, and this led to tensions and violent outbreaks. Monetary inflation and splits amongst the rulers began to occur in the empire, as various pretenders vied for power in Rome, and these had deleterious effects in Britain. The fight against Allectus may have led to the frontier being denuded of troops in the late 3rd century, with consequent attacks from the north. There is evidence of fire-damage at Ravenglass and other damage elsewhere in the north. The emperor came to Britain twice to put down trouble in 296, defeating Allectus, and in 305 fighting the , and there is evidence of re-building taking place. In the early 4th century, defence-in-depth seems to have become the strategy in the frontier area, with the Wall becoming less of a 'curtain' barrier and more reliance being placed on the forts as 'strongpoints'. The reforms of the emperors and led to prosperity, in the south of the country at least, but this stability did not long outlast the death of Constantine in 337. The 330s and 340s saw a return to civil wars in the empire and, again, Britain was affected. It is possible that the west coast of England and Wales was strengthened in a way similar to that of the southern '' defensive system. How this affected the Cumbrian coast is uncertain, but it appears that the forts at Ravenglass, Moresby, Maryport and Beckfoot were maintained and occupied, and there is evidence that some of the Hadrianic coastal fortlets and towers were re-occupied, such as at milefortlet 5. The usurpation of and his defeat in 353 may have further increased troubles in. Attacks on the province took place in 360 and, some years later, secret agents, known as the or 'Arcani' , operating between Hadrian's Wall and the Vallum as intelligence-gatherers, were involved in the of 367-368. They were accused of going over to the enemies of the empire, such as the , the from Ireland , and the , in return for bribes and the promise of plunder. Some of the 'outpost-forts' north of the Wall, and others such as Watercrook, seem not to have been maintained after 367, but , or maybe local 'chieftains', did a fair amount of re-building and recovery work elsewhere. There is evidence of a narrowing of the gateway at Birdoswald, and structural changes at Bowness-on-Solway and Ravenglass, for example. There may also have been new fortlets at Wreay Hall and Barrock Fell, and possibly at Cummersdale, all south of Carlisle. Birdoswald - showing partial blockage of main east gateway After the 360s there appears to have been a 'marked decline in the occupation of vici', possibly due to the clearing out of the 'areani' by Theodosius. Also, army supplies were increasingly shipped in from imperial factories on the continent. The continuous loss of numbers of troops drawn away to fight elsewhere , plus the ravages of inflation, meant that there was little reason left for local inhabitants of the vici to remain. The raids by the and Scots in the late 4th and early 5th centuries the so-called 'Pictish Wars' , meant increasing strain. For example, between 385 and 398 when cleared the raiders out , Cumbria was 'left to its own devices'. The various phases of re-modelling of the Birdoswald fort in the second half of the 4th century suggest that it was becoming more like a local warlord's fortress than a typical Roman fort. It may be that local people were looking more to their own defence perhaps influenced by thought about self-salvation , as Roman authority waned for example, taxation-gathering and payment to the troops gradually ceased. In the northern frontier area at least, it looks as though the local Roman fort commander became the local warlord, and the local troops became the local militia operating a local 'protection racket', without any direction from above. The Roman 'abandonment' of Cumbria and Britain as a whole was therefore not a sudden affair, as the famous advice of in 410, supposedly to the Britons that is, to look to their own defence suggests. The Romano-British, in the north at least, had been doing that for some time. The stationed in the forts obviously had an impact. Land around forts was appropriated for various uses - parade grounds, annexes as at Carlisle , land given to retired troops for farming use, mining operations copper in the Lake District, lead and silver around Alston , and so on. Around most forts, a plural, 'vici' - a civilian settlement - may have been established, consisting of merchants, traders, artisans and camp-followers, drawn to the business opportunities provided by supplying the troops. The beginnings of something like town-life can be seen, but probably not with the same extent of urbanisation and wealth as in the south of England. The - an enamelled cooking and serving vessel, engraved with the names of four Hadrian's Wall forts sited in Cumbria 2nd century AD. See also the article on the and Amiens skillet. Apart from settlements associated with the forts, Roman Cumbria consisted of scattered rural settlements, situated where good agricultural ground was to be found in the Solway Plain, the West Coastal Plain, and in the valleys of the Eden, Petteril and Lune. The - private collection Most of the population, the total size of which at its peak has been estimated at between 20,000-30,000 people, lived in scattered, but not isolated, communities, usually consisting of just a single family group. They practised mixed agriculture, with enclosures for arable use, but also with enclosed and unenclosed pasture fields. During the second half of the Roman occupation, there seems to have been a move from agricultural land to pasture and 'waste' with building of walls and barriers - perhaps due either to a fall-off in demand for grain locally, consequent on the decline of the Roman military establishment, or to a drop in productivity. It is difficult to assess the long-term effects of the Roman occupation on the native inhabitants of Cumbria. The evidence gleaned from artefacts such as the also known as the Ilam Pan , suggests that a Romano-British adaptation of Celtic art persisted in Cumbria. Celtic tradition survived in Roman disguise... In a superstitious age, religion was a factor that may have helped to bridge the divide between Roman and Celtic ways of life to form a. After the destruction of the , there is evidence of a mixing of Roman mystery-cults with local Celtic deities, alongside formal Roman cults of the emperor and worship of the. Main article: Early medieval Cumbria, 410-1066 After the Romans: warring tribes and the Kingdom of Rheged, c. In Cumbria, the Roman presence had been almost entirely military rather than civil, and the withdrawal is unlikely to have caused much change. The power vacuum was probably filled by local warlords and their retainers who fought it out for control over various regions, one of which may have been Rheged. However, questions remain as to what post-Roman Cumbria looked like, in terms of its political and social life. Sources — history and legend The questions mentioned above remain to be answered because now we enter the period that used to be called the , due to the lack of archaeological and finds, although the last few decades have provided more in the way of archaeological evidence due to the improvement in dating, especially by means of radiocarbon analysis , and the unreliability of the documentary sources that we are forced to use as a result. Some historians, therefore, dismiss some well-known figures of the 5th and 6th centuries, potentially connected with Cumbria, as being or -. The Valley between Appleby and Penrith, an area referred to affectionately as the heartland of in the praise poems of Taliesin As far as Arthur is concerned, as with many other areas with Celtic connections, there are a number of legends associated with Cumbria. After the Roman withdrawal, Coel Hen may have become the High King of Northern Britain in the same vein as the Irish and ruled, supposedly, from now. Warring tribes The successive withdrawals of Roman troops from Cumbria throughout the 4th and early 5th centuries created a power vacuum which, by necessity, was filled by local warlords and their followers, often just based around a single village or valley. The main strife of this period was created by the local 'tyrants', or warlords, fighting amongst themselves, raiding and defending themselves against raids. Local 'kings', with successors, were continually being made and unmade in this intertribal warfare, and by the end of the 6th century some had gained a lot of power and had formed kingships over a larger area. One of these was of Strathclyde , and was another he may have been based at. Possible position of Rheged The extent of Rheged is disputed: none of the early sources tells us where Rheged was located. Some historians believe that it was based on the old Carvetii tribal region - mostly covering the Solway plain and the Eden valley. Others say that it may have included large parts of , and. The Kingdom's centre was based, possibly, at Llwyfenydd, believed to be in the valley of the , a tributary of the in east Cumbria, or, alternatively, at Carlisle. The little that is known about Rheged and its kings comes from the poems of , who was bard to Urien, King of and of Rheged and possibly overlord of. It is known, from the poetic sources, that under Urien's leadership the kings of the north fought against the encroaching Angles of Bernicia and that he was betrayed by one of his own allies, , who arranged his assassination after the battle of Ynys Metcaut around 585 AD. The Battle of , fought by the British c. Walls Castle, : the possible site of the Arthurian Lyons Garde or birthplace Christian saints One aspect of the in Cumbria, that is also uncertain as regards its historical evidence, is the early establishment of Christianity. A number of early 'Celtic' saints are associated with the region, including , and. Whether the dedications to these saints denote a continuance of a Celtic polity or populace through this period and the subsequent Anglian and Scandinavian periods, or whether they are the result of 12th-century revivals of interest in them, is unclear. Definite evidence of 6th-century Christianity in Cumbria is hard to find - no remains of stone-built churches exist and any wooden ones have disappeared. Life in 'Dark-age' Cumbria Despite, or perhaps because of, the emergence of local chieftains and warbands, there are signs that the 5th and 6th centuries were not ones of economic strain in Cumbria not more than usual, at least. The Angles: Northumbrian takeover and rule, c. The Northumbrian kingdom was based on the expansionist power of , which, by 604, had taken over their neighbouring kingdom of , along with other kingdoms of the Old North such as Rheged, although the dating of the takeover, and the extent of the Anglo-Saxon settlement that followed, are a matter of contention amongst historians. Documentary and archaeological evidence is lacking and qualified reliance is placed on place-names, sculpture and blood-group studies, all of which are open to challenge. Takeover The reign of Aethelfrith's rival, brother-in-law and successor, , saw Northumbrian power stretch as far as the ' Province' with the taking of the c. How much involvement Rheged had in this move is unclear. Northumbrian ambitions were eventually checked with the disastrous defeat of King Ecgfrith's forces in 685 at the hands of the Picts at the , but the north-west region, including the Cumbria area, remained firmly within the Northumbrian ambit during this period. Around 638 AD , who would become the King of Northumbria after the death of Oswald, married Riemmelth Rhiainfellt , a direct descendant of Urien Rheged and a Princess of the kingdom. This peaceable alliance between the British and English signalled the beginning of the end of formal Cumbrian independence, as Angles from the north east began to filter into the Eden Valley and along the north and south coasts of the county. Anglian settlement The extent of Anglian settlement of Cumbria during this period is unclear. The place-name evidence suggests that that is, Anglo-Saxon, or, in this case, Anglian names are to be found in the lower-lying areas around the highland modern Lake District inner-core. At least one historian believes that the core, strategically important, area of the Solway and the lower Eden valley, remained essentially 'Celtic', with Carlisle retaining its old Roman 'civitas' status under Northumbrian overlordship, occasionally visited by the King of Northumbria and bishops such as Cuthbert, and overseen by a '' English: 'reeve' , a kind of permanent official. Some historians, however, do not see the praepositus official as evidence of permanent, Celtic, occupation. King Edwin, according to the Historia Brittonum, was converted to Christianity by Rhun, son of Urien, around 628. However, states that was the main force behind this. Rhun was probably present regularly at Edwin's court as a representative of Rheged. Later, the Bernician over-king, Oswiu 643-671 , married twice - firstly Riemmelth of Rheged granddaughter of Rhun , and secondly Eanflaed of Deira, thus uniting all three kingdoms. It is thus possible that a line of Anglian sub-kings ruled at Carlisle, from this time on, at least, on the strength of legal title and not just conquest. In 670, Oswiu's son—but not by Riemmelth— ascended the throne of Northumbria and it was possibly in that year that the was erected, bearing English , which shows that they were certainly present in the area. But it seems that Cumbria was little more than a province at this time and, although Anglian influences were clearly seeping in, the region remained essentially British and retained its own client-kings. Church and state The relation between church and state may have led to the end of Northumbrian control in the Cumbria region. Legend has it that Cuthbert foresaw the death of Ecgfrith at Dun Nechtain , while visiting the church at Carlisle, warning Ecgfrith's second wife Eormenburg whom he was accompanying. Bede reckoned that the decline of Northumbrian power dated from this year 685 , but military set-backs were only part of the picture. Inter-family struggles amongst the various branches of the royal family played a part, as did the granting of royal estates the so-called to the Northumbrian Roman church in return for support for the various attempts on the throne , encouraged by the aristocracy who wished to lessen the burden of royal power and taxation. Cuthbert's grant of lands around Cartmel was one example of this process of degradation of royal resources and power. The , Irton, Cumbria, early 9th century, Anglian pre-Viking sculpture The huge estates given to the Church meant that it became an alternative power-base to the king. In Cumbria, there were monasteries at Carlisle, , and , known from literary sources; and at Knells, and , known from stone inscriptions; and possible sites at , with its early 9th-century cross, and Addingham without any evidence attached to them. Anglian sculpture was invariably to be found at monastic sites which, in turn, were to be found in good agricultural areas. By 875, the Northumbrian kingdom had been taken over by Danish Vikings. Cumbria was to go through a period of Irish-Scandinavian Norse settlement with the addition, from the late 9th century on, of the influx of more Brittonic Celts. Vikings, Strathclyde British, Scots, English and 'Cumbria', 875—1066 'Giants Grave', St. Andrew's churchyard, Penrith, an unusual arrangement of two Viking-age cross-shafts with four hogbacks in the foreground. In addition, there is a smaller, Viking-age, wheel-headed cross just visible in the background The Norse made devastating raids on the Northumbrian monasteries in the early 800s, and, by 850 had settled in the Western Isles of Scotland, in the Isle of Man, and in the east of Ireland around Dublin. They may have raided or settled in the west coast of Cumbria, although there is no literary or other evidence for this. The collapse of Anglian authority affected what happened in Cumbria: the power vacuum was filled by the Norse, the Danes in the east, and by the Strathclyde British who themselves came under pressure from the Norse in the 870s and 890s. The expansion of the Scots to the north and the English to the south also complicates the picture. Once again, our sources for what happened are extremely limited: the , for example, barely mentions the north. We are thrown back upon the study of place-names, artifacts, and stone sculptures, to fill in the picture of 10th-century Cumbria. As a result, there is some dispute amongst historians concerning the timing and the extent of the influx of Vikings and Strathclyders into Cumbria. Strathclyde British settlement Some historians argue that the vacuum left by the Northumbrian eclipse in Cumbria led to people from the kingdom of Strathclyde also confusingly known at this time as 'Cumbria', the 'land of our fellow countrymen' or '' moving into the north of what we now call Cumbria. The bulk of what was to become Cumbria, south of the Eamont, certainly seems to have been untouched by this movement of Brittonic peoples. It is thought possible that this settlement of fellow Christians was encouraged by the Anglo-Celtic aristocracy, probably with the support of the English south of the Cumbrian region, as a counterweight against the Hiberno-Norse. It may be that, up to around 927, an alliance of Scots, British, Bernicians and fought against the Norse, who were themselves allied to their fellow Vikings based in York. This situation altered with the coming of to power in England in 927. Present were: ; Constantine II , King of Scots; , King of the Cumbrians; , King of Wales; and , Lord of Bamburgh. Athelstan took the submission of these other kings, presumably to form some sort of coalition against the Vikings. The growing power of the Scots and perhaps also of the Strathclyders, may have persuaded Athelstan to move north and attempt to define the boundaries of the various kingdoms. This is generally seen as the date of the foundation of the , the northern boundary of which was the Eamont river with Westmorland being outside the control of Strathclyde. After the in 937, an English victory over the combined Scots, Strathclyders and Hiberno-Norse , Athelstan came to an accommodation with the Scots. During this time, Scandinavian settlement may have been encouraged by the Strathclyde overlords in those areas of Cumbria not already taken by the Anglo-Celtic aristocracy and people. In 945 Athelstan's successor, , invaded Cumbria. The records the defeat of the Cumbrians and the harrying of Cumbria referring not just to the English county of but also all the Cumbrian lands up to Glasgow. Edmund's victory was against the last Cumbrian king, known as possibly , and, following the defeat, the area was ceded to , King of Scots, although it is probable that the southernmost areas around , Cartmel and remained under English control. The warriors who settled here encouraged stone sculptures to be made. However, the local Anglian peasantry seems to have survived in these areas as well. Some, less successful, occupation of other lowland areas took place, along with, thirdly, occupation of 'waste' land in the lowland and upland areas. This occupation in the less-good farming areas led to place-names in -ǣrgi, -thveit,, -bekkr and -fell, although many of these may have been introduced into the local dialect a long time after the Viking age. The , 10th-century Viking-age sculpture. A replica of 1887, with clearer depictions of the decoration, may be found in the churchyard at , along with a replica of another cross, the original of which is at The occupation was likely to have been largely by the Norse between about 900 and 950, but it is unclear whether they were from Ireland, the Western Isles, the Isle of Man, Galloway, or even Norway itself. Just how peaceful, or otherwise, the Scandinavian settlement was remains an open question. It has been suggested that, between c. It has also been suggested that the Hiberno-Norse in Dublin were prompted to colonise the Cumbrian coast after being temporarily expelled from the city in 902. The successful attempt by to conquer the Danes in York around 920 must have led to the Dublin - York route through Cumbria being frequently used. In Westmorland, it is likely that much colonization came from Danish Yorkshire, as evidenced by place-names ending in -by in the upper-Eden valley region around Appleby , especially after the eclipse of Danish power in York in 954 the year of the death of the Norse King of York, , on Stainmore. There was no integrated and organized 'Viking' community in Cumbria - it seems to have been more a case of small groups taking over unoccupied land. However, others argue that the place-name evidence points to the Scandinavians not just accepting the second-best land, but taking over Anglian as well. But does it show Loki or Satan? The evidence of the sculpture is unclear when it comes to influences. Although called by some 'pagan' or 'Viking', it may be that some, if not most, of the crosses and to be found almost wholly in south Cumbria, away from the Strathclyde area , such as the and the Penrith 'Giant's Grave', reflect secular or early Christian concerns, rather than pagan ones. Typically high and narrow Cumbrian style, in the shape of a building with a roof, eaves and walls. The Saint's tomb has a crucifixion on the end, the Warrior's tomb has a procession of armed men As an example of Viking relics, a hoard of Viking coins and silver objects was discovered in the Eden valley at. Also in the Eden valley were finds at and at Ormside, which has been mentioned above as the site of a possible Viking grave-good. The other areas of Viking finds include Carlisle west of the Cathedral , pagan graves at and finds in the Lune valley and on the west coast for example, and St. It is even suggested that there were two kingships, one of the Clyde area effectively 'annexed' by in the late 9th century and another of the Cumbrian as defined above , the latter having, through marriage or by patronage, increasingly Scottish input. Much of this interpretation rests on the writings of and has been challenged by other historians. The Rere or on Stainmore Whatever the background, from c. In 971, raided 'Westmoringa land', presumably trying to extend the Cumbrian frontier to Stainmore and the. In 973, Kenneth and obtained recognition of this enlarged Cumbria from the English king. Attempts by the Scots and Cnut to control the area ended with emerging as a strongman. He was a Dane, becoming Cnut's right-hand man in the north by 1033 Earl of Yorkshire, around 1033; and also Earl of Northumbria, around 1042. Sometime between 1042 and 1055, Siward seems to have taken control of Cumbria south of the Solway, perhaps responding to pressure from the independent lords of Galloway or from Strathclyde or perhaps taking advantage of Scottish troubles to do with the reign of. Siward aided his kinsman , possibly known as 'the King of the Cumbrians' but possibly confused with of Strathclyde at the Battle of in 1054, against Macbeth who, although escaping, was eventually killed in 1057. Despite this receipt of help, Malcolm invaded Northumbria in 1061, possibly trying to enforce his claim as 'King of the Cumbrians', that is, to regain the lost territory of Cumbria south of the Solway taken by Siward , whilst Siward's successor as earl, , was away on pilgrimage. It is likely that Malcolm succeeded in regaining the Cumberland part of Cumbria in 1061: in 1070 he used Cumberland as his base to attack Yorkshire. This 1061 incursion was the first of five such raids by Malcolm, a policy that alienated the English Northumbrians and made it harder to fight the Normans after the invasion of 1066. For the next thirty years, Cumbria, probably down to the Rere Cross boundary, was in the hands of the Scots. Malcolm III, King of Scots, held the Cumberland territory, probably down to the River Derwent, River Eamont and Rere Cross on Stainmore line , until 1092, one year before his death in battle. Cuthbert monks in Durham , due to the rule of the West Saxon outsider. Other factors include the absentee nature of Tostig's rule in the North, and his friendship with King Malcolm. William I The proceeded only slowly in the North of the country, perhaps due to the relative poverty of the land for example, not suitable for growing the Normans' preferred wheat, as opposed to oats , and to various uprisings in England as well as in Normandy that meant that had to be elsewhere. The various raids by Malcolm III of Scotland, the Danes and the English rebels, plus regular uprisings by Northumbrian nobles, all contributed to the weakness of William's control of the North. Most of Cumbria therefore remained in the hands of the Scots, as well as being a base for brigands and dispossessed rebels. Cumbria south of the mountains, the future Westmorland south of the Eamont, and North Lancashire, had been held by Tostig in 1065, during which time he had battled against both the Scots and bands of brigands. It is likely that this situation persisted for much of William's reign as well. William finally brought Northumbria under control: his son, , building the castle at in 1080. Domesday Approximate extent of Domesday coverage : the district of Hougun covers the three peninsulas at the left of the pink area When the Normans conquered England in 1066, much of Cumbria was a no-man's-land between England and Scotland which meant that the land was not of great value. Secondly, when the was compiled 1086 , Cumbria had not been conquered by the Normans. Only the southern part of the county, the , , and part, or all, of peninsulas , known as the , that which included lands held by Earl Tostig, was included, and even that was only as annexes to the Yorkshire entry. In 1092, Rufus took over Cumberland by expelling the local lord, , who may or may not have been related to Earl Cospatrick. Then, he built the castle at Carlisle and garrisoned it with his own men, and sent peasants, possibly from Ivo Taillebois' Lincolnshire lands, to cultivate the land there. The takeover of the Carlisle area was probably to do with gaining territory and providing a strongpoint to defend his north-west frontier. Kapelle suggests that the takeover of Cumberland and the building at Carlisle may have been designed to humiliate King Malcolm or to provoke him into battle. The result was the last invasion by Malcolm and his own, plus his son's, death at the. The subsequent contest for the succession to the Scottish throne between and allowed Rufus to maintain his hold on the Cumberland and Carlisle areas until his death in 1100. Henry enjoyed good relations with both and Henry's nephew, , and therefore he could concentrate on developing his northern lands without the threat of a Scottish invasion. Either he or his predecessor, Rufus, possibly around 1098, granted Appleby and Carlisle to who became the strongman of the north-west frontier. Others place the date of the grants after the , that is, 1106 onwards. Ranulf was the third husband of , the first husband of whom had been Ivo Taillebois, whose Cumbrian and Lincolnshire lands he inherited. Gatehouse - all that remains of Wetheral Priory, founded by Ranulf le Meschin in 1106 Henry I himself visited Carlisle the following year, from October or November 1122. There is some doubt as to whether these were new or whether they were confirmations of tenants-in-chief under Ranulf's previous administration. Henry also took direct control perhaps in the years after 1122 in Carlisle partly in order to ensure that the running of the silver mine at was done from there. He also confirmed the property and rights of the monks of Wetheral; and he established the Augustinian priory of Saint Mary at Carlisle, becoming, in 1133, when a new diocese was created. Carlisle Cathedral : founded in 1133 Henry, besides promoting his Norman allies into positions of power in the north, was also careful to install some local lords into secondary roles. For example, two Anglo-Saxon northerners, probably from Yorkshire, were , who became the first Bishop of Carlisle, and Forn of Greystoke. Waltheof of Allerdale was a Northumbrian. David I of Scotland With the death of Henry I in 1135, England fell into a civil war, known as. Having been brought up in the court of his mentor and uncle, Henry I, as very much a Norman prince, he supported the claims of Matilda over those of her cousin, Stephen of Blois. The first ceded Carlisle and Cumberland to David. St Mary's Church, Abbeytown : all that is left of , founded by David I, King of Scots, and his son, Earl Henry, in 1150 David may have been intending to enlarge his control of northern England when he fought at the , some of the soldiers of David's force being Cumbrians from south of the Solway-Esk line, that is. Despite losing the battle, David kept his Cumbrian lands, and his son Henry was made Earl of Northumberland at the second. David died at Carlisle in 1153, a year after his son Henry. Cumbria under the early Angevins, 1154-1272 Henry II, 1154-89 The pattern of trading upon the weakness of one side or the other continued as regards Anglo-Scottish relations in 1154 when became King of England. The were also known, from 1204 on, as the. King David of Scotland's death left an eleven-year-old boy, , on the Scottish throne. Malcolm had inherited the earldoms of Cumbria and Northumbria as fiefs of the English crown, and did homage to Henry for them. However, at Chester, in July 1157, Henry demanded, and obtained, the return of control to England of Cumbria and Northumberland. The King of Scots was given the honours of Huntingdon and Tynedale in return, and relations between the two countries were amicable enough, although Henry and Malcolm seem to have fallen out at another meeting in Carlisle in June 1158, according to. Henry took the opportunity of this relative peace to increase royal control in the north: justices toured the remote northern areas, taxes were collected and order was maintained. Hubert de Vaux was given the Barony of in order to strengthen defences. The accession to the Scottish throne of in 1165 brought border wars, the war of 1173-74 saw Carlisle besieged twice by the Scottish king's forces, with the city being surrendered by the constable of Carlisle Castle, Robert de Vaux, when food ran out , but no giving up of Cumbria or Northumberland to the Scots, despite Henry's troubles after the murder of and the Scots' alliance with France. The of 1174 formalised a rather coercive peace between the two countries. Indeed, it was around this time that the ancient counties which made up modern Cumbria came into existence. Westmorland, in 1177, was formally created from the baronies of Appleby and Kendal. The barony of was added to the Carlisle area to form the county of Cumberland in 1177. Lancashire was one of the last counties to be formed in England in 1182, although its boundaries may have been fixed around 1100. Richard I and John, 1189—1216 , needing money to finance his , abrogated the Treaty of Falaise in return for a subsidy from the Scots, who, although still asking for the return of Cumbria and Northumbria from both Richard 1189-1199 and 1199-1216 , were refused any concessions. John continued the policy of strengthening royal control over the northern territories, particularly in the business of gathering various unpopular taxes. However, the lack of fighting over the border settlement changed for the worse when the civil war broke out in England between King John and his nobles in 1215. The new Scottish king, , supported the nobles in return for their promise of the restitution of Cumbria and Northumberland to Scottish control. A Scots' army marched into Carlisle in 1216-17. John drove out the Scots who then repeated the action. This situation was defused with the death of John in October 1216. Henry III, 1216—72 succeeded John as a nine-year-old but, despite this, an agreement was made between the English and Scots in 1219. The English kept the northern counties, while Alexander gained the honours of Huntingdon and Tynedale, along with and , the latter being in. Location of Inglewood Forest, stretching from Carlisle to Penrith; it was the most northerly of the Royal forests In 1237, the was signed, by which Alexander renounced claims to Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland, while Henry granted the Scottish king certain lands in the north, including manors in Cumberland. The Honour of Penrith was one of the areas of land granted to Alexander, and included, as well as the manor of Penrith, the manors of Castle Sowerby, , , and. The Penrith honour remained under Scots' control from 1242 until 1295. The 13th century also appears to have been a period of relative prosperity, with many of the monasteries which had been established in the 12th century beginning to flourish; most notably in the south of the county which went on to become the second richest religious house in the north of England with lands across Cumbria and in Yorkshire. Wool was probably the greatest commercial asset of Cumbria at this time, with sheep being bred on the fells then wool carried along a network of trails to centres like Kendal, which became wealthy on the wool trade and gave its name to the vibrant colour. Iron was also commercially exploited at this time and the wide expanses of Forest became prime hunting ground for the wealthy. Later medieval Cumbria, 1272—1485 The Scottish wars led to a hardening of the border-line as Anglo-Scottish nobles took sides with or against the English. Cross-border co-operation turned into cross-border warfare. The weakness of the English Crown's authority over the border region led to the rise of semi-independent border families, such as the , the , the and the , who became the effective law of the land. At the same time, brigandage by smaller groups became commonplace, leading to families having to fend for themselves by building and. Scottish raids and cross-border feuding caused more harm than the Wars of the Roses in the Cumbria region. The Scottish Wars of Independence Furness Abbey, founded in 1123 by , attacked by the Scots in 1322 Towards the end of the 13th century, the peace between England and Scotland was shattered at the hand of , who wished to control Scotland. In 1286 he confiscated the manors granted in 1237, and in 1292 installed on the Scottish throne. The other contender, , accepted this situation. Edward also took direct control of Carlisle in 1292, effectively denying the city's charter and municipal status. However, the outbreak of war between England and France in 1294 led Balliol to repudiate the agreement and in 1296 he invaded Cumbria Carlisle holding out against him. Edward defeated him and took upon himself the government of Scotland; the lands of those Anglo-Scottish nobles who had backed Balliol were confiscated. Renewed resistance came from Scotland in the form of in 1297, with Carlisle Castle withstanding a siege yet again , and with supporting Edward in the ending of the Wallace rising 1305. The death of Edward in 1307 and internal disputes in England under , allowed Robert the Bruce time to establish himself in Scotland after his having decided to renew his grandfather's claim to the Scottish throne 1306. After the in 1314, border warfare took place mostly on the English side of the line, whereas previously it had been on the Scottish side. The Bishop of Carlisle came to private arrangements with the Scots in order to protect his lands. A three-hundred-year period of regular raids and counter-raids followed which effectively undid the years of economic progress since the two centuries earlier. Two early raids of 1316 and 1322, under the leadership of Bruce were particularly damaging and were as far reaching as. On the second occasion, the Abbot of Furness Abbey went to meet Bruce in an attempt to bribe him into sparing his Abbey and its lands from destruction. The Scottish King accepted the bribe but continued to ransack the entire area anyway, so much so that in a tax inquisition of 1341 the land at nearby was said to have gotten less and less in value from £53 6s 8d to just £10 and at from £35 6s 8d to only £5. The system of the came into existence as a result of this 1296-1328 with areas on either side of the border being entrusted to 'wardens' who did what had previously been done by sheriffs in terms of military functions. These were experienced military men drawn from the powerful local families Dacres, Cliffords, Greystokes, Percies and Nevilles in Cumbria. They ran their own private armies, paid for by themselves at first, later paid for by the Crown, sometimes being offered plunder in return for their support. Some failed to prosper in the role: the career of , who had defended Carlisle in 1315 and became Warden of the West March, was a case in point. A type of customary law grew up whereby disputes and criminal cases were dealt with by the wardens, rather than by Royal justice as elsewhere in the country. The wardens recognized special border tenant rights, in return for the supply of military service. Yanwath hall - a semi-fortified house near Penrith The border 'names' magnates and lesser families indulged in warfare and raiding across the border, the lesser brigands often receiving protection from the greater lords. As a consequence, throughout the 14th-century, there was an increase in the building of castles by the greater magnates, and in the building of fortified houses peel towers, mostly built during c. The authorities in Carlisle complained that the city's defences were being neglected as a result. The Church was not immune to the raiding : the monks of Holm Cultram even built a fortified church nearby at. The Bishop of Carlisle, in 1337, even went as far as joining the Cliffords and Dacres on a raid to Scotland, enabling him to gain sufficient monies for him to fortify his own residence at. Payment of was another way to stave off the Scots : Carlisle paid £200 during the 1346 invasion, for example. Edward III and the Hundred Years' War, 1327—1453 The humiliation of Bannockburn and the unsatisfactory terms, from the English point of view, of the of 1328 recognising a fully independent Scotland , led the young to back the claims of the 'Disinherited' those nobles who had lost lands in Scotland in their attempt to install on the throne of Scotland. The subsequent lasted from 1332 to 1357, which, although boosting the credentials of Edward at home, ended in retaining the throne of an independent country. During this period, the northern counties were invaded and suffered some destruction. As mentioned above, Carlisle paid protection money in 1346 to David II while on his way to the men from Cumberland fought on the English side there. By 1337, Edward was beginning to be embroiled in what was to become the with France, with the Scots taking the side of France. These were the years during which most of the peel towers and warning beacons were built, around the Lake District dome, chiefly in the Eden Valley, the Solway plain, the West Cumberland plain and the Kent valley. The Percies, the Nevilles, and the Wars of the Roses The , fought between Lancastrian and Yorkist claimants to the throne of England, had some cause and effect in Cumbria, although no battle took place there. The intense rivalry between the landowners in Cumbria and elsewhere in the North fed into the factionalism at Court which was exacerbated by the mental instability of King. The two main families were the Percies and the Nevilles. The Nevilles had been promoted by King to counterbalance the growth of influence in the North of the Percies. In 1397, was made Earl of Westmorland and also given the manors of Penrith and Sowerby, as well as being made sheriff of Westmorland. The Cliffords, based at Appleby and Brougham, were fearful of the rise in influence of the Neville family, especially after the manors around Penrith had been given to them , and supported the Lancastrian Percy interest. The subsequent attempt by King Richard to lessen the power in the north of the two families, the Crown had few estates in the North to counterbalance those of the noble families , caused both Percies and Nevilles to back Henry Bolingbroke to become King in 1399. Percy power over the wardenships was restored and the Nevilles were also rewarded, although less so. The rise of the Percies was stopped, however, in 1402 when they rebelled against Henry, partly because of the rewards garnered by the Nevilles , and they never really recovered their position thereafter. The Earl of Westmorland, who had fought against the Percies at the , where the Percies were defeated, was rewarded with the wardenship of the West March. This low-level regional turned into a national-level blood-feud in 1455, when went over to the Yorkist cause of whose wife was Salisbury's sister,. However, the Yorkist victories after the saw the Nevilles making sure that MPs of Yorkist influence were returned at Carlisle and Appleby. After the 'Kingmaker' went over to Henry VI's side in 1470, , Edward IV's brother, received most of the Neville lands in Cumbria and Yorkshire, becoming Warden of the West March and Sheriff of Cumberland. Most of the northern nobles backed Richard's bid to become king in 1483. However, at the , failed to support Richard leading a distrustful to make Lord Dacre the Warden of the West March. Tudor Cumbria, 1485—1603 Cumbria during the Tudor period, in terms of political and administrative developments, saw a period of turmoil and a response to it by the English Crown. The area was caught up in the continuing and increasing strife caused by local clans the border reivers , by the religious reformation initiated by , by the subsequent rebellion of Catholic nobles and by war with the Scots. In the end, royal power was increased at the expense of the local great families. These various themes were actually linked. The Border Reivers In the three hundred years leading up to the Union of the English and Scottish crowns in 1603, as well as actual military clashes between the two countries, unrest remained constant thanks to the inhabitants of the Borderlands themselves, often called the. The Reivers were characterised by strong kinship bonds, forming clan-like groups under a given surname that could extend across the Anglo-Scottish borderline. These groups became semi-autonomous from local government, owing far more loyalty to their name than to the king or local lords. In north Cumbria, the more prominent of the clans included the Grahams also distributed on the Scottish side of the border , the Hetheringtons, the Carletons, the Crosers, the Armstrongs also a strong clan in on the Scottish side , the Routledges, the Nobles, the Milburns, the Storeys, the Hodgsons, the Hardens, the Tailors, and the Bells. A Border Reiver : statue in Carlisle The Reivers take their name from the fact that they lived by raiding from the Old English rēafian 'to rob' , rustling cattle and sheep from across the border and even looting the armies of their own King, such was their antipathy towards their nations. The reiving became so common and so violent by the 16th century that wealthier border families took to building or - fortified dwellings, often with room for livestock and supplies beneath the accommodation - which are still a common site in the north of Cumbria. Kentmere Hall, an example of a Cumbrian Pele tower In an attempt to deal with the growing problem, the English and Scottish monarchs installed local magnates, with extensive local connections and considerable power, as , operating from around 1296 onwards following the. The Wardens were tasked with keeping order and trying to enforce , a customary law that had evolved since the thirteenth-century and maybe earlier. The north of Cumbria formed the English West March the regions either side of the border had been parcelled out in the fourteenth-century, into zones called. Despite being in a tough area along the border, with the unruly clans of the Scottish west march and of in particular, facing opposite, Cumbria did not fare as badly as it might have from the reivers. The area around and around the borderline itself suffered, but the West Cumbrian Plain and the Eden Valley, rich agricultural lands both, were relatively untouched. The presence of , plus smaller strongpoints such as , , , and as well as the barrier of the River Eden, helped to divert the attentions of the reivers to the middle march valleys of and. In Cumbria, the powerful northern families and other, lesser, gentry, who were appointed Warden and deputy-warden included the Dacres, the Cliffords, the Musgraves, the Carletons, the Lowthers, the Ridleys and the Salkelds many of whom were involved in, or encouraged, reiving themselves. The Anglo-Scottish marches It was not just the local magnates who might encourage the reivers - the English and Scottish governments did the same. The reiver light cavalry were useful to the Crowns in fomenting trouble against the opposite realm when required to do so. Border horsemen fought in wars abroad and at home on behalf of the governments: Sir William Musgrave's 'prickers' light horsemen were involved at the , for example. The problem of the reivers worsened in the last few decades of the 16th century, firstly because an increase in taxes forced an increase in rents which caused a breakdown of the ties between landlords and tenants, and secondly because many of the border families remained staunch Catholics following the Protestant Reformation. Only when the border effectively disintegrated a process helped along by a ruthless policy of clearing out and killing many of the reivers with the Union of the Crowns in 1603 did reiving cease to dominate the lives of the border inhabitants. The Reformation in Cumbria The in Cumbria, in the sense of the drive towards church reform, was ineffectual compared to elsewhere in England. The baronies were in the hands of religious conservatives such as the Dacres, the Howards, and the Cliffords. The bishops usually Royal nominees based in and then administering the south of what was to become Cumbria, and in the poorer diocese of Carlisle in the northern sector were themselves not greatly interested either the brightest and best candidates were either scholarly in nature or wanted in London to serve the central government, or simply did not want to move to such an unimportant, remote, potentially dangerous, and poor position - in the North, the great prize was. Thirdly, Cumbria lacked, with the exception of , any rising, relatively prosperous, town with an increasing merchant or middle-class Protestantism was more likely to take hold in such places. Gateway to the College at Kirkoswald Cumbrian participation in the see below indicated that people were ready for Catholic reform, and were not anti-clerical. Much of the ill-feeling was to do with the doing away with saints' days and their associated festive activities. The , in terms of reallocation of church property, does not seem to have caused much consternation. The main beneficiaries were not the great nobles, but those who were not so conservative in religion and who could provide Henry VIII with a lever of power in Cumbria. So, the illegitimate half-brother of William, Lord Dacre, Thomas Dacre, a royal supporter, received Lanercost Priory and its lands excluding the church in 1542. Sir John Lamplugh received St. Bees, Sir Thomas Curwen received Furness Abbey, received Shap. Many parishes, staffed by members of the monasteries, were left without priests. The reign of seems to have found Cumbrians restoring the Catholic services quite easily. The lack of Protestant preachers throughout the period Kendal being the exception was another factor, along with the simple matter of focussing on mere survival against plague, reivers and Scots, that militated against reform. There was perhaps a certain amount of ignorance, on behalf of the population, to theological argument, and a retention of superstition and even pagan ways. The parish clergy were few and ill-educated the better ones, like the bishops, wanted livings in more prosperous areas of the country. Therefore, in the 1560s, the , John Best, found little resistance to reform except among some priests protected by Dacre and the , both probably anxious about loss of local power after the. The real problem was not amongst the nobles and gentry, nor with there were relatively few of these in the 1597 count in the docese of Carlisle compared with the number in Lancashire , but with the people themselves, who had other things on their minds. Early Tudor Cumbria, 1485—1558 As regards the of the sixteenth-century and their effect on Cumbria, the English policy was often one of either fomenting trouble for the Scottish Crown, sometimes using the reiving clans to do this, or else promoting open warfare. The attempt to further the cause in Scotland, either by support or coercion, was also a part of Tudor policy with the exception of. The focus on as a potential, Catholic, successor to had implications for the Catholic nobles of Cumbria. Fraser highlights the career of to illustrate the response to Scottish troubles in the early Tudor period. Having fought against at the , Henry nevertheless made Dacre deputy-Warden of the West March once he was King, because he was distrustful of the intentions of the Percies in supporting the Tudor cause in future. Dacre and his Cumbrian riders were prominent in fighting for Henry at the in 1513, and in the subsequent harrying of the Scots across the border. Thereafter, he became an effective Warden of the West March until his death in 1524. Tomb of at The most notable incident, in terms of open warfare, was probably the in 1542. This came about after , the nephew of Henry VIII, refused to follow his uncle's pro-Reformation policy in religious affairs. Local gentry, including Musgraves, Curwens, Dacres and Lowthers were involved in defeating the Scots. Wharton had been made steward of , a former Percy stronghold that had been relinquished to the Crown. The subsequent and the battles of and no doubt included Cumbrian forces as well. When the horrors of the Anglo-Scottish war of the 1540s were at last over, the opportunity was taken to define, once and for all, which country was to have which bit of the , a lawless area and refuge of fugitives. A Commission of 1552 drew the straight line, marked by a trench and , that defined the border in this area hence forward. In Cumbria, especially around the Cockermouth and Penrith areas, the main factor seems to have been rapacious landlords, with the added animosity between the Dacres and the Cliffords preventing an early stop to trouble. The Tudor policy of 'divide and rule' as regards the northern nobility helped to further local animosities and weak rule such as this. Clark, however, thinks that religious motivations were more involved in Cumbria than economic ones. The rebels reopened the monasteries that had been shut down in 1536, for example. Eventually, the two main noble families came together and raised the rebel siege of Carlisle with Dacre help. Most of the Cumbrian gentry and clergy refused to back the rebels, of whom 74 from Cumbria were executed. Cumbria under Elizabeth I, 1558—1603 The next significant involvement with Scottish affairs was the reception, presumably by one of the family, of at in May 1568. She then travelled to , after which Richard Lowther, the deputy-Warden of the West March, escorted her to , as there were rumours that some northern Catholic nobles may have wanted to rescue her from the English Crown's grasp. Workington Hall, the Curwens' family seat The abortive came about after Mary was removed further south and a subsequent attempt to rescue her was planned. Local and personal reasons for the rising are thought to have played as much a part as court politics in the motivations of the noble participants, the main ones of which with Cumbrian links were , an M. However, the main instigators were the lesser gentry who resented loss of power and status, as well as disaffected Catholics. The Earl of Westmorland felt under pressure from the new Elizabethan rule as regards church payments the new, Protestant, regime was asking for rent arrears to be paid. Also, as well as being out of sympathy with Protestantism, he was struggling with the loss of authority to the new place-men now wielding power. Dacre's suspect motives seem to have been to do with trying to prevent his inheritance from falling into the grip of the who was himself a potential focus of Catholic hopes, but who submitted to Elizabeth and whose daughters eventually 1601 inherited, or rather, bought from the Crown, the attainted Leonard Dacre's Burgh, Gilsland, and Greystoke baronies, as well as other manors. Held by the Greystoke family, then by the Dacres and inherited by the Howard family during Elizabeth I's reign. Photo:Simon Ledingham Increase in Royal power Although some monks from Furness and Holm Cultram abbeys joined in the 1569 rebellion, few other people involved themselves. The whole episode showed the weakness of the northern earls after the Pilgrimage of Grace they were not able to raise many soldiers from their Cumbrian or other northern estates. It also pointed to the increase in power of the Elizabethan state directed through the Council in the North , and the more effective military might of the Crown, especially in terms of artillery and the control of castles. Carlisle Castle was kept in Crown hands and was modernised in Tudor times to take into account the new advances in artillery, which could not be afforded by the northern nobility. The northern nobles had always struggled, relatively to their southern estate-owners, to survive financially. Border duties against the reivers, civil wars, and the natural death-toll amongst heirs and heiresses, meant a weakening of aristocratic power in the North. The system of and the nobles permitting multiple tenancies, allowed them to muster forces, commanded by local gentry in times of war or against the reivers. But the financial consequences meant imposing harsh rents to pay for the system, and this caused resentment among the tenants, helping to weaken the authority of the barons. The Tudor regime had inherited Richard III's northern estates, and Elizabeth also put in place her own local gentry whenever the opportunity arose such as the attainder of Francis Dacre in 1589, which put most of the Dacre lands in Cumbria into Crown hands until 1601 when the major baronies were purchased by the Howard family. Nicholson, born and living in Millom, argued, in his book Greater Lakeland, that the Lake District area depended on the outlying towns and districts such as Carlisle and the Solway Plain, the West Cumbrian industrial towns, and, in particular, the small towns that fringe the lake and mountain core such as Cockermouth, Penrith, Kendal, Barrow and so on. And how did the protected of the Lake District, a since 2017, develop? Early travellers Many of the people who travelled around and commented on the Lake District were people who did not live in the area. Their attitude to the Lakes was therefore coloured to some extent by what they knew of other areas of Britain and the Continent of Europe. Other travellers were perhaps less given to hyperbole. The Towards the end of the 18th century, the prevailing attitude to mountain and lake scenery, as noted above, underwent a profound change. This was in large part due to the effects of upper-class British travellers returning from the. The trip to see the sites related to , to be found in Italy and Greece, often took the travellers across the , which started out as an obstacle to be overcome, and ended up as being a looked-for part of the adventure. The influence of Roman history for example, and his elephants crossing the Alps ; of painters such as , and ; of literary men such as , and the latter two travelling on the Grand Tour together until they fell out and parted company ; as well as of the literary take-up of the myth of by , among others , all fed into the greater appreciation of the rugged Alpine scenery around them. This feeling was allied to notions of the , and of a life to be lived away from the growing effects of the in Britain. At the end of the century, the onset of the meant that trips to France, Italy and Greece could no longer be made; the search for scenery had to be confined to other, more local, areas, and the English Lake District fitted the bill perfectly. Two relatively local clergymen who helped to promote a more receptive view of mountains and lakes were Dr. John Brown of Description of the Lake and Vale of Keswick, 1767. An Excursion to the Lakes in Westmoreland and Cumberland, with a Tour through part of the Northern Counties in 1773 and 1774, 1776. History of the county of Cumberland and some places adjacent, 1794. He and some friends rowed a boat to the middle of Ullswater and fired cannons to hear the echoes reverberate around the valley. A 'new Picturesque' sensibility emerged. The principal members of the 'group' were , and. Although wrote no poetry of her own, she provided much of the inspiration for her brother William's. There was a certain amount of additional involved in the 'School's' perception by readers, who were inspired, upon reading the poetry, to visit the area, thus helping to destroy, in the mind of at least, the very thing that made the Lakes special although he himself ended up writing one of the best guides to the region. In addition, many of the first and second generation practitioners of had a complex and not entirely easy relationship with the Lakes apart from Wordsworth. Born and brought up on the fringes of the Lake District at Cockermouth and Penrith , Wordsworth came back to the area in December 1799 and settled into a 'poetic retirement' within his 'native mountains. His 'vision' of nature was one that did not distort it in order to make art. Hundreds of visitors came here to see him over the years Despite this reclusive side of his personality, Wordsworth was a strong believer in family and community, and he was much concerned with the effects on especially poor people's way of life of social change for example, due to the that were taking place. He disliked change that flew in the face of Nature: the planting of regimented lines of Larches; the coming of the railways; new building that did not chime with the ; and the building of grand houses in the Lakes by the industrialists of Lancashire particularly upset him. The Guide ran to five editions during Wordsworth's lifetime and proved to be very popular. For other writers, the region's pull was more uncertain. This led him to resort to the , making matters desperate. Coleridge moved out of the area in 1804. Greta Hall, Keswick - home of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1800-1804; home to Robert Southey, 1803-1843 , it has been argued, although becoming identified as the central 'Lake Poet' he lived at Greta Hall from 1803 to 1843 , was mostly a prose writer and did not particularly subscribe to the Wordsworthian vision of the Lakes. Keats moved on to Scotland which provided him with the inspiration he sought and where, in particular, he felt the influence of. The hale and hearty provided an alternative take on the role of Lake Poet. He lived near between 1808 and 1815 and knew the older Lake Poet trio well. His poetry Isle of Palms reveals a physical response to the Lakes scenery he was an energetic walker and climber , and emphasises companionship and energy as against Wordsworthian quiet and solitude. Wilson knew both and. Martineau settled in a house she had built near Ambleside in 1845. As befitted her -based background, her views concentrated on the need for the Lakes to be connected more with the outside world for example, she was in favour of improved sanitation and of the new railways being set up through the district, unlike her friend Wordsworth. Her guide to the Lakes Complete guide to the Lakes, 1855 was a rather factual and clear-eyed description about what to find there and about the condition of the people. De Quincey moved into in 1809 after having met his hero Wordsworth a couple of times before at and then , edited essays, 1834-1840. His worship of Wordsworth turned sour after De Quincey married a local girl and the Wordsworths refused to meet her. Brantwood, overlooking Coniston Water, viewed from the steam yacht 'Gondola' - note the angled, corner windows designed to take in the views settled in the house , overlooking , in 1871, aged 48, having visited the Lakes many times previously. Lake painters There was no equivalent Lake School of Painters to rival that of the poets. Those who came to the Lakes usually stayed only briefly and often as part of a larger tour of the North. Also, the painters and sketchers who did come were, with the exception of and , not in the highest ranks of the craft. However, all did contribute to a more positive acceptance of landscape painting as a bone fide alternative to the genres of history painting and portraiture that had been the fashion previously. Twenty views of the Lakes, 1784—89 moved north to Keswick after having read Thomas Gray. Farington's paintings of the Lakes were more accurate than had been the norm previously. He had been a pupil of , regarded by some as the founding-father of British landscape painting, and his patron was also a pupil of Wilson's and also the patron of. Farington and Hearne toured the Lakes together, along with Beaumont, in 1777. Farington was also connected to the powerful Walpole family and became influential in the art establishment of the time. Painters who were enticed north, amongst a host of others, included 1784 ; 1783 ; 1786 ; 1783-1797 ; 1793 , visited the Lakes in 1797 , , , , , , , , , and across the sands to Lancaster and Yorkshire. Ignoring the Picturesque guidebooks, his paintings worked up in the studio during the Winter from sketches done at the time , took some liberties with the topography, but are reckoned to capture the elemental forces of the Lakes more than anyone else. Later visits took place in 1801 and 1831. Although no great paintings were produced from this trip, the numerous sketches and watercolours that he produced have been admired, and take their place in his development as an artist, dealing largely with questions of composition and mood. Constable was one of those artists, like who signalled a move towards the sketch, in HilVictoria and Albert Museum 1984 , l's case moving away from the Arcadian panorama towards close-up views. Hills visited the Lakes in 1803, accompanied by , and guided by William Green. Glover followed the Arcadian tradition of Richard Wilson. If Turner and Constable took freedoms with what they saw in the Lake District, , a surveyor from Manchester who went to live in Ambleside in 1800, decided to reproduce what he saw faithfully, like Farington. His was a painstaking and accurate depiction, in drawings, etchings and watercolours, of the topography of the land and of the architecture he complained of the fad for modernising some of the old vernacular buildings. He became friendly with the Wordsworths and other local gentry and sold many of his engravings to them. He produced The tourist's new guide 1819 with sixty etchings and a text. Later in the century, painters followed Ruskin's ideas about 'natural composition', that is Nature, rather than human beings, was the model to go to, rather than pictorialism and the making of panoramas. The landscape realists of the 1850s onwards did detailed studies in front of the subject and were often linked with the movement and with the newly established National Schools of Art and the increasing patronage of the museums and galleries of Liverpool and Manchester. They also came to see the regattas held by Joseph Pocklington, who had purchased in 1778, as well as the land on which the stood in 1789. They viewed the curiosities to be found in Pocklington's friend and regatta-organiser Peter Crosthwaite's. Select Committee on Public Walks. The proximity of the Lakes to Lancashire offered an outlet for fresh-air and exercise to the increasingly numerous factory workers and town-dwellers. Napes Needle on , a favourite of the early climbers in the Cumbrian fells followed the same process as that of fellwalking and of tourism in that it also began as a pastime of the and then broadened out for all classes. The , established in 1857, began using the Lake District fells for training during Winters when the conditions in the Alps were not suitable. However, the frequent lack of snow in the Lakes led to the birth of rock-scrambling, which then developed into that could also take place in Summertime. The birth of conservation Wordsworth has some claim to being the one of the founders of the ecology and landscape conservation movement, although his motives may have been mixed and not meeting with modern-day approval. One example of his views was that building should harmonise with their surroundings and draw from local tradition where possible. He and Dorothy's gardening work at Dove Cottage shows this in action. Even later, when planning for a possible new-build villa for himself and his family, the design was of a smaller size than those built by the industrial magnates of the time on the shores of Windermere and Derwentwater for example, , Belsfield, Brathay Hall. The houses built or lived in by Martineau, Professor Wilson and reflected this low-key approach. Wray Castle - built by a Liverpool doctor who had married a rich wife. Constructed in 1840 at the head of Windermere. Associated with two key players of the National Trust : Canon Rawnsley and Beatrix Potter The railway speculators, the industrial tycoons sending their workers off on holiday by rail , and local Lake District landowners and shopkeepers all had an interest in seeing the area opened up to the railways. Wordsworth fought a battle in the newspapers, from 1844 onwards over the proposed Kendal to Windermere line , to keep them out, insisting that the taste for picturesque scenery was not innate and had to be taught to people as his Guide tried to do. Apart from tearing up the countryside, the railway would cause noise and disturbance, and bring in hordes of non-refined people seeking pleasure. Canon , the future co-founder of the was undecided : he was a strong advocate of the Lake District's ability to provide recreation, rest and fresh-air, as well as aesthetic pleasure, but also knew just how the big cities of the North needed pure water to prevent disease. The scheme was passed in Parliament in 1879. The removal of access to the shoreline and insensitive planting of conifers, the swamping of the hamlet of Wythburn, and the building of new roads were not judged a success by some locals and visitors. The Thirlmere decision, and other subsequent attempts to drive railways to more sensitive parts of the Lake District, led Rawnsley and others to set up, in 1883, the Lake District Defence Society later, The Friends of the Lake District. This organisation fought for access and conservation. In another move, Rawnsley, , and set up the National Trust in 1895 with a view to acquiring and managing land. Cumbria was one of the least ethnically diverse regions in the country: 99. Also in 2001, Cumbria saw a devastating outbreak of which resulted in the killing of 10 million cattle and sheep across the UK; out of 2,000 cases nationwide, 843 were in Cumbria. Cumbria was the worst affected county in the outbreak. Cumbria's agriculture and tourism industries were severely scarred, many tourists were put off visiting the , whilst the local economy is estimated to have lost. After huge efforts to prevent the disease from spreading further by killing infected animals as well as disinfecting every vehicle entering certain parts of the county , the outbreak was officially halted in October 2001 after beginning in February the same year. In 2001, the South Cumbrian town of hit global headlines after an ; the source of the bacteria was later found to be steam coming out of a badly-maintained air conditioning unit in the media and arts centre; the disease killed seven people and in total there were 172 cases; it was one of the worst outbreaks of its kind in recorded history the most deadly in the UK's history. On the evening of 5 February 2004, dozens of off the Cumbrian coast when rising tides led to 23 of them drowning in. They were all illegal immigrants, mainly from the province of China, and were described as untrained and inexperienced. They were being exploited by gang leader Lin Liangren, who paid them £5 per 25 kg of cockles. Local authorities were alerted by one of the gang members who contacted them on a mobile phone, but only one of the workers was rescued from the waters; partly because the phone call was unclear both on the extent and severity of the danger, and on their location. A total of 21 bodies, of men and women between the ages of 18 and 45, were recovered from the bay after the incident. Two of the victims were women; the vast majority were young men in their 20s and 30s and it is presumed that two more bodies were lost at sea. The disaster led to the and the formation of the also the perpetrator, Lin Liangren, was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, numerous others linked with the disaster were also imprisoned on immigration offences and of perverting the course of justice. One of several incidents to have occurred on the in the 21st century was the ; on 15 February 2004 four railway workers were hit and killed by a trolley carrying lengths of rail which had not been properly secured and had run away from a maintenance yard several miles away. The boss of the rail maintenance company and a crane operator were tried on charges of manslaughter caused by gross negligence; both men were eventually jailed. A store underwater in Carlisle during the January 2005 floods On 8 January 2005, flooding caused massive disruption and damage across the north of the county, which was considered the worst flooding in living memory until the. More than 3,000 properties were affected, 60,000 homes were left without power and some areas of the city were under 7 ft 2. Rivers , , , and burst their banks, and £250 million of damage was caused. The had Cumbrian authorities on standby, especially the station in Barrow; the fatal air incident occurred on 27 December 2006, whilst transporting replacement crew between the and Morecambe gas platforms. The descended into the sea due to pilot error and this led to the death of six men. On 23 February 2007, train 1S83, the 17:15 express service from to , was derailed by a defective set of points; the incident occurred at 20:15 GMT when 109 people were on board. The 2009 Cumbria earthquake refers to an event on 28 April 2009 at 11:22 am local time when an earthquake of the magnitude 3. It was recorded by the as having an epicentre about 8 km 5. The earthquake was felt by residents in and the tremor lasted for 5—10 seconds. There were phone calls from some people who felt the tremor in the , and areas but there were no reports of any casualties, injuries or damages. The site of the During the night of 19 November 2009, than what is expected over the period of a whole winter month. The most intense period of rainfall broke nationwide records, and resulted in almost everywhere in the country being affected. However the worst damage occurred in the north and around and where water rose to almost 3 metres in places, many Lakes of the Lake District overflowed and several bridges collapsed. There was one death: , a police officer who was directing traffic away from the Northside Bridge at Workington when the bridge collapsed into the river. On 2 June 2010, one of the worst. Taxi driver Derrick Bird went on a two-hour shooting spree in the towns of , , and , which ultimately claimed the lives of twelve people which included his twin brother, his family solicitor, and a former colleague; the other fatalities are thought to have been targeted at random. Dozens more were injured before Bird turned the gun on himself and committed suicide in a field near the village of. The event also saw the complete lock-down of the nuclear processing site, an action unseen in the plant's 50-year history. Several overseas events which have affected the county. The has so far claimed the lives of three Cumbrians two men and one woman — the UK's first female loss , whilst the has seen the deaths of two Cumbrian servicemen. Retrieved 21 March 2015. Archived from on 2 June 2008. Viking age sculpture in Northern England. The Scandinavians in Cumbria. Edinburgh: Scottish Society for Northern Studies. The border papers : calendar of letters and papers relating to the affairs of the Border of England and Scotland preserved in Her Majesty's Public Record Office, London. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. Stroud: The History Press. In John Hunter; Ian Ralston eds. The archaeology of Britain : an introduction from earliest times to the twenty-first century 2nd ed. Prehistoric rock art in Cumbria: landscapes and monuments. 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